Glossary
A
Abnormal behavior – behavior that involves a combination of personal distress, psychological dysfunction, deviance from social norms, dangerousness to self and others, and costliness to society
Abnormal psychology – The scientific study of abnormal behavior, with the intent to be able to reliably predict, explain, diagnose, identify the causes of, and treat maladaptive behavior
Absolute refractory period – After the neuron fires it will not fire again no matter how much stimulation it receives
Acceptance techniques – A cognitive therapy used to reduce a client’s worry and anxiety
Acquired capability for suicidality – The idea that, over time, an individual who has been exposed to pain or life-threatening danger are desensitized, to a degree, to death or bodily harm
Action potential – When the neuron depolarizes and fires
Acute stress disorder – Though very similar to PTSD, symptoms must be present from 3 days to 1 month following exposure to one or more traumatic events
Adaptive skills – Skills that help us navigate our daily lives successfully
Adjustment disorder – Occurs following an identifiable stressor within the past 3 months; stressor can be a single event (loss of job) or a series of multiple stressors (marital discord that ends in a divorce); there is not a set of specific symptoms an individual must meet for diagnosis, rather, the symptoms must be significant enough that they impair social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning
Adrenal glands – Located on top of the kidneys, and which release cortisol to help the body deal with stress
Agoraphobia – When a person experiences fear specific to leaving their home and traveling to public places
All-or-nothing principle – The neuron either hits -55mV and fires or it does not
Amygdala – The part of the brain responsible for evaluating sensory information and quickly determining its emotional importance
Anal Stage – Lasting from 2-3 years, the libido is focused on the anus as toilet training occurs
Anorexia Nervosa – An eating disorder characterized by the restriction of energy intake relative to requirements, leading to a significantly low body weight in the context of age, sex, developmental trajectory, and physical health; intense fear of gaining weight or of becoming fat, or persistent behavior that interferes with weight gain, despite significantly low weight; and disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced, undue influence of body weight or shape on self-evaluation, or persistent lack of recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight
Antecedents – The environmental events or stimuli that trigger a behavior
Asylums – Places of refuge for the mentally ill where they could receive care
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – A disorder in which individuals have difficulty with executive functioning – an individual’s decision-making ability, which involves working memory, inhibition of inappropriate or unhelpful responses, and ability to focus in on relevant information while dismissing unimportant or irrelevant information
Attribution theory – The idea that people are motivated to explain their own and other people’s behavior by attributing causes of that behavior to personal reasons or dispositional factors that are in the person themselves or linked to some trait they have; or situational factors that are linked to something outside the person
Autism spectrum disorder – A neurodevelopmental concern related to social and adaptive functioning characterized by two major areas – deficits in social communication and interaction and significant concern related to restricted and receptive behaviors and/or interests
Automatic thoughts – The constant stream of negative thoughts, also leads to symptoms of depression as individuals begin to feel as though they are inadequate or helpless in a given situation
Autonomic nervous system – Regulates functioning of blood vessels, glands, and internal organs such as the bladder, stomach, and heart; It consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID) – Characterized by simply a low interest in eating/feeding which ultimately leads to a deficit in obtaining appropriate calories and nutrients
Axon – Sends signals/information to neighboring neurons
Axon terminals – The end of the axon where the electrical impulse becomes a chemical message and is passed to an adjacent neuron
B
Behavior modification – The process of changing behavior
Behavioral assessment – The measurement of a target behavior
Behaviors – What the person does, says, thinks/feels
Binge-Eating Disorder (BED) – An eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating associated with: significant distress regarding binge eating behaviors; binge eating occurring, on average, at least once a week for 3 months; and binge eating behaviors are not associated with compensatory behaviors such as that in bulimia nervosa
Biological Model – Includes genetics, chemical imbalances in the brain, the functioning of the nervous system, etc.
Bipolar Disorder I – A mood disorder characterized by a least one manic episode and the symptoms are not explained by a personality disorder
Bipolar Disorder II – A mood disorder characterized by having at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode, never having had a manic episode, and the symptoms are not better explained by a personality disorder; Symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) – is an obsessive disorder, the focus of the obsessions being on perceived defects or flaws in the person’s physical appearance
Bulimia Nervosa – An eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating, recurrent compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain, and the over-evaluation of shape and weight; the binge eating and compensatory behaviors both occur, on average, at least once a week for 3 months and these behaviors do not occur exclusively during an episode of anorexia nervosa
C
Central nervous system (CNS) – The control center for the nervous system which receives, processes, interprets, and stores incoming sensory information
Cerebellum – The part of the brain involved in our sense of balance and for coordinating the body’s muscles so that movement is smooth and precise; Involved in the learning of certain kinds of simple responses and acquired reflexes
Child psychopathology – Abnormal psychology that is present during childhood.
Classical conditioning – When two events that occur close together become strongly associated with one another, despite their lack of causal relationship
Classification – The way in which we organize or categorize things
Classification systems – Provide mental health professionals with an agreed upon list of disorders falling in distinct categories for which there are clear descriptions and criteria for making a diagnosis
Client-centered therapy – Stated that the humanistic therapist should be warm, understanding, supportive, respectful, and accepting of his/her clients
Clinical assessment – The collecting of information and drawing conclusions through the use of observation, psychological tests, neurological tests, and interviews to determine what the client’s problem is and what symptoms he/she is presenting with
Clinical description – Includes information about the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that constitute that mental disorder
Clinical diagnosis – The process of using assessment data to determine if the pattern of symptoms the person presents with is consistent with the diagnostic criteria for a specific mental disorder set forth in an established classification system such as the DSM-5 or ICD-10
Clinical interview – A face-to-face encounter between a mental health professional and a patient in which the former observes the latter and gathers data about the person’s behavior, attitudes, current situation, personality, and life history
Cognitive coping skills training – Teaches social skills, communication, and assertiveness through direct instruction, role playing, and modeling
Cognition or intellectual functioning – Our ability to problem solve, understand and analyze complex material, absorb information from our environment, and reason
Cognitive restructuring – Also called rational restructuring, in which maladaptive cognitions are replaced with more adaptive ones
Cognitive triad – When a person interprets negative thoughts about their experiences, themselves, and their futures
Comorbidity – When two or more mental disorders are occurring at the same time and in the same person
Complex trauma – Occurs when a child experiences multiple traumatic events
Compulsions – Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual performs in response to an obsession
Conditioning – A type of associative learning, occurs which two events are linked
Conduct Disorder – A more severe behavioral disorder in which an individual displays a disregard not only for rules and authority, but also the rights and conditions of humans and/or animals
Confounding variables – Variables not originally part of the research design but contribute to the results in a meaningful way
Consciousness – According to Freud, the level of personality that is the seat of our awareness
Consequences – The outcome of a behavior that either encourages it to be made again in the future or discourages its future occurrence
Contingencies – When one thing occurs due to another
Control group – The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or is not manipulated
Cortisol – A hormone released as a stress response
Counterconditioning – The reversal of previous learning
Courtesy stigma – When stigma affects people associated with the person with a mental disorder
Course – The particular pattern a disorder displays
Critical thinking – Our ability to assess claims made by others and make objective judgments that are independent of emotion and anecdote and based on hard evidence, and required to be a scientist
Cross-sectional validity – When a behavior made in one environment happens in other environments as well
Culture – The totality of socially transmitted behaviors, customs, values, technology, attitudes, beliefs, art, and other products that are particular to a group, and determines what is normal
Culture-sensitive therapies – A sociocultural therapies that include increasing the therapist’s awareness of cultural values, hardships, stressors, and/or prejudices faced by their client; the identification of suppressed anger and pain; and raising the client’s self-worth
Cyclothymic disorder – A mood disorder characterized by hypomanic symptoms and mild depressive symptoms (i.e. do not fully meet criteria for a depressive episode)
D
Dangerousness – When behavior represents a threat to the safety of the person or others
Deinstitutionalization – The release of patients from mental health facilities
Dendrites – Receives information from neighboring neurons and look like little trees
Denial – Sometimes life is so hard all we can do is deny how bad it is
Dependent variable (DV) – In an experiment, the variable that is measured
Depolarized – When ion gated channels open allowing positively charged Sodium ions to enter; This shifts the polarity to positive on the inside and negative outside
Depressant substances – Such as alcohol, sedative-hypnotic drugs, and opioids, are known to have a depressing, or inhibiting effect on one’s central nervous system; therefore, they are often used to alleviate tension and stress
Descriptive statistics – Statistics which provide a means of summarizing or describing data, and presenting the data in a usable form
Deviance – A move away from what is normal, or the mean, and so is behavior that occurs infrequently
Differential reinforcement – When we attempt to get rid of undesirable or problem behaviors by using the positive reinforcement (providing a reward of some sort) of desirable behaviors
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) – Children with DSED tend to be overly social and interact with complete strangers. They experience impaired caregiving, which means that the caregiver does not sufficiently care for the child on a consistent basis.
Displacement – When we satisfy an impulse with a different object because focusing on the primary object may get us in trouble
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD) – a depressive disorder in which a child presents as persistently irritable– they are likely often described as an irritable/unhappy child. The child displays extreme outbursts over minor stressors in their environment
Distress – When a person experiences a disabling condition that can affect social, occupational, or other domains of life and takes psychological and/or physical pain
Dopamine – Neurotransmitter which controls voluntary movements and is associated with the reward mechanism in the brain
Dream analysis – In psychoanalytic theory, is an attempt to understand a person’s inner most wishes as expressed in their dreams
Dyscalculia – Disorder in math
Dysfunction – Includes “clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning” (APA, 2013)
Dyslexia – Disorder in reading
E
Ego – According to Freud, the part of personality that attempts to mediate the desires of the id against the demands of reality, and eventually the moral limitations or guidelines of the superego
Ego-defense mechanisms – According to Freud, they protect us from the pain created by balancing both the will of the id and the superego, but are considered maladaptive if they are misused and become our primary way of dealing with stress
Enactive learning – Learning by doing
Encopresis – Incontinence with bowel movements (i.e., the inability to remain absent of bowel accidents)
Endorphins – Neurotransmitters involved in reducing pain and making the person calm and happy
Enuresis – Urinary incontinence or the inability to remain absent of urinary accidents
Enzymatic degradation – When enzymes are used to destroy excess neurotransmitters in the synaptic space
Epidemiological study – A special from of correlational research in which the prevalence and incidence of a disorder in a specific population are measured
Epidemiology – The scientific study of the frequency and causes of diseases and other health-related states in specific populations such as a school, neighborhood, a city, country, and the world
Eros – Our life instincts which are manifested through the libido and are the creative forces that sustain life
Etiology – The cause of the disorder
Excoriation – Characterized by an individual recurrently skin picking
Existential perspective – This approach stresses the need for people to continually re-create themselves and be self-aware, acknowledges that anxiety is a normal part of life, focuses on free will and self-determination, emphasizes that each person has a unique identity known only through relationships and the search for meaning, and finally, that we develop to our maximum potential
Exorcism – A procedure in which evil spirts were cast out through prayer, magic, flogging, starvation, having the person ingest horrible tasting drinks, or noise-making
Experimental group – In an experiment, the group that receives the treatment or manipulation
Exposure treatments – When an individual is exposed to their feared stimuli
Extinction – When something that we do, say, think/feel has not been reinforced for some time
F
Fixed Interval schedule (FI) – With a FI schedule, you will reinforce after some set amount of time
Fixed Ratio schedule (FR) – With this schedule, we reinforce some set number of responses
Flooding – Exposing the person to the maximum level of stimulus and as nothing aversive occurs, the link between CS and UCS producing the CR of fear should break, leaving the person unafraid
Forensic interview – A recorded interview with the goal to allow a child to provide information about their experiences of abuse in a non-leading and supportive method
Free association – In psychoanalytic theory, this technique involves the patient describing whatever comes to mind during the session
Frontal lobe – Part of the cerebrum that contains the motor cortex which issues orders to the muscles of the body that produce voluntary movement
Functional behavioral assessment – When we closely scrutinize the antecedents and consequences to behaviors to see what affects the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a desired or problem behavior
Fundamental attribution error – Occurs when we automatically assume a dispositional reason for another person’s actions and ignore situational factor
G
GABA – Neurotransmitter responsible for blocking the signals of excitatory neurotransmitters responsible for anxiety and panic
Gaps – Holes in the literature of a given area
Generalizability – Begin able to apply your findings for the sample to the population
Generalized anxiety disorder – The most common anxiety disorder characterized by a global and persistent feeling of anxiety
Genital Stage – Beginning at puberty, sexual impulses reawaken and unfulfilled desires from infancy and childhood can be satisfied during lovemaking
Glial cells – The support cells in the nervous system that serve five main functions: as a glue and hold the neuron in place, form the myelin sheath, provide nourishment for the cell, remove waste products, and protect the neuron from harmful substances
Glutamate – Neurotransmitter associated with learning and memory
H
Habituation – When we simply stop responding to repetitive and harmless stimuli in our environment
Hippocampus – Our “gateway” to memory; Allows us to form spatial memories so that we can accurately navigate through our environment and helps us to form new memories about facts and events
Hypertension – -Chronically elevated blood pressure
Hypomanic episode – Persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood; May present as persistent increased activity or energy; Symptoms last at least 4 consecutive days and present most of the day, nearly every day; Includes at least three of the following: inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, more talkative or pressured speech, flight of ideas, distractibility, increase in goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation, or excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential for painful consequences
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis – Involved in the fear producing response and may be involved in the development of trauma symptoms
Hypothalamus – The part of the brain involved in drives associated with the survival of both the individual and the species; It regulates temperature by triggering sweating or shivering, and controls the complex operations of the autonomic nervous system
Hypothesis – A specific, testable prediction
Humanism – The worldview that emphasizes human welfare and the uniqueness of the individual
Hyperactive/impulsive symptoms – Symptoms of ADHD related to excessive energy and movement as well as impulsivity
I
Id – According to Freud, is the impulsive part of personality that expresses our sexual and aggressive instincts
Identification – This is when we find someone who has found a socially acceptable way to satisfy their unconscious wishes and desires and we model that behavior
Inattentive symptoms – Children with these symptoms tend to lose things frequently, have a hard time following directions because they get distracted, are disorganized, and make a lot of careless mistakes on classwork; Part of ADHD
Incidence – The number of new cases in a population over a specific period of time
Independent variable (IV) – In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated
Inferential statistics – Statistics which allow for the analysis of two or more sets of numerical data
Intellectualization– When we avoid emotion by focusing on intellectual aspects of a situation
Intelligence tests – Used to determine the patient’s level of cognitive functioning and consists of a series of tasks asking the patient to use both verbal and nonverbal skills
Interoceptive exposure – Involves inducing panic specific symptoms to the individual repeatedly, for a prolonged time period, so that maladaptive thoughts about the sensations can be disconfirmed and conditional anxiety responses are extinguished
Ions – Charged particles found both inside and outside the neuron
J
K
L
Laboratory observation – A research method in which the scientist observes people or animals in a laboratory setting
Latency Stage – From 6-12 years of age, children lose interest in sexual behavior and boys play with boys and girls with girls
Latent content – The hidden or symbolic meaning of a dream
Law of effect (Thorndike, 1905) – The idea that if our behavior produces a favorable consequence, in the future when the same stimulus is present, we will be more likely to make the response again, expecting the same favorable consequence
Learned helplessness – When a person or animal learns that they cannot avoid a painful stimulus on one day and then the next, when given the chance to escape the stimulus, choose not to still believing they cannot escape
Learning – Any relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Learning disorder – Characterized by the inability or difficulty processing academic or functional information in our environment
Libido – The psychic energy that drives a person to pleasurable thoughts and behaviors
Lifetime prevalence – Indicates the proportion of a population that has had the characteristic at any time during their lives
Literature review – When we conduct a literature search through our university library or a search engine such as Google Scholar to see what questions have been investigated already and what answers have been found
Locus coeruleus – The brain structure that serves as an “on-off” switch for norepinephrine neurotransmitters
M
Major Depressive Disorder – A mood disorder characterized by depressed mood most of the day or decreased interest or pleasure in all or most activities most of the day, along with insomnia or hypersomnia, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, or difficulty concentrating to name a few symptoms; symptoms occur during a two week period
Manic episode – Persistent elevated, expansive, or irritable mood. May present as persistent increased goal-directed activity or energy; Symptoms last at least 1 week and present most of the day, nearly every day; includes three of the following: inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, more talkative or pressured speech, flight of ideas, distractibility, increase in goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation, or excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential for painful consequences
Manifest content – The person’s actual retelling of the dream
Mass madness – or Group hysteria; When large numbers of people display similar symptoms and false beliefs; a term used during the Middle Ages
Mathematics learning disorder – This may be related to simple calculation abilities such as math facts or more complex problem-solving and reasoning abilities
Medulla – The part of the brain that regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
Melatonin – A hormone released when it is dark outside to assist with the transition to sleep
Mental disorders – Characterized by psychological dysfunction which causes physical and/or psychological distress or impaired functioning and is not an expected behavior according to societal or cultural standards
Mental health epidemiology – Refers to the occurrence of mental disorders in a population
Mental hygiene movement – An idea arising in the late 18th century to the early 19th century with the fall of the moral treatment movement, it focused on the physical well-being of patients
Mental status examination – Used to organize the information collected during the clinical interview and systematically evaluates the patient through a series of questions assessing appearance and behavior to include grooming and body posture, thought processes and content to include disorganized speech or thought and false beliefs, mood and affect such that whether the person feels hopeless or elated, intellectual functioning to include speech and memory, and awareness of surroundings to include where the person is and what the day and time are
Model – A representation or imitation of an object
Modeling – Techniques used to change behavior by having subjects observe a model in a situation that usually causes them some anxiety
Mood lability – Rapid shifts in mood
Moral treatment movement – An idea arising in Europe in the late 18th century and then in the United States in the early 19th century, it stressed affording the mentally ill respect, moral guidance, and humane treatment, all while considering their individual, social, and occupational needs
Myelin sheath – The white, fatty covering which: 1) provides insulation so that signals from adjacent neurons do not affect one another and, 2) increases the speed at which signals are transmitted
Multicultural psychology – The area of psychology which attempts to understand how the various groups, whether defined by race, culture, or gender, differ from one another
Multidimensional disorders – States that there are many contributing factors that lead to the development of an eating disorder
Multi-dimensional model – An explanation for mental illness that integrates multiple causes of psychopathology and affirms that each cause comes to affect other causes over time
Muscle Dysmorphia – The belief that one’s body is too small, or lacks appropriate amount of muscle definition
Mutually exclusive – Meaning that only one diagnosis can be assigned at any given time
N
Naturalistic observation – A research method in which the scientist studies human or animal behavior in its natural environment which could include the home, school, or a forest
Negative Punishment (NP) – This is when something good is taken away or subtracted making a behavior less likely in the future
Negative Reinforcement (NR) – This is when something bad or aversive is taken away or subtracted due to your actions, making it that you will be more likely to make the same behavior in the future when the same stimuli presents itself
Nerves – A group of axons bundled together like wires in an electrical cable
Neurological tests – Used to diagnose cognitive impairments caused by brain damage due to tumors, infections, or head injury; or changes in brain activity
Neuron – The fundamental unit of the nervous system
Neurotransmitter – When the actual code passes from one neuron to another in a chemical form
Nomenclature – A naming system
Noncontingent reinforcers – When reinforcement (i.e. food or liquid) is provided for a period of time, and does not require a particular behavior from the individual for the individual to receive the reinforce
Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) – Also frequently referred to as self-harm, are self-injurious actions that an individual engages in without the intent to end one’s life
Norepinephrine – Neurotransmitter which increases the heart rate and blood pressure and regulates mood
Nucleus – The control center of the body
O
Observation – Observing others either naturalistically or in a controlled environment
Observational learning – When we learn by observing the world around us
Obsessions – Repetitive and persistent thoughts, urges, or images
Obsessive compulsive disorder – More commonly known as OCD, the disorder requires the presence of both obsessions and compulsions
Operant conditioning – A type of associate learning which focuses on consequences that follow a response or behavior that we make (anything we do, say, or think/feel) and whether it makes a behavior more or less likely to occur
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) – Characterized by a child that is defiant and vindictive at times
Oral Stage – Beginning at birth and lasting to 24 months, the libido is focused on the mouth and sexual tension is relieved by sucking and swallowing at first, and then later by chewing and biting as baby teeth come in
P
Panic disorder – When an individual experiences recurrent panic attacks consisting of physical and cognitive symptoms
Parasympathetic nervous system – The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after sympathetic nervous system arousal
Parietal lobe – The part of the cerebrum that contains the somatosensory cortex and receives information about pressure, pain, touch, and temperature from sense receptors in the skin, muscles, joints, internal organs, and taste buds
Perceived burdensomeness – The idea that an individual cannot meaningfully contribute to one’s own life, other’s life, or society (e.g., physical impairment, unemployment)
Peripheral nervous system – Consists of everything outside the brain and spinal cord; It handles the CNS’s input and output and divides into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Period prevalence – Indicates the proportion of a population that has the characteristic at any point during a given period of time, typically the past year
Persistent Depressive Disorder – A mood disorder characterized by poor appetite or overeating, insomnia or hypersomnia, low self-esteem, low energy, and feelings of hopelessness lasting most of the day, for more days than not, for at least 2 years
Persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic disorder – When either one or more motor tics or one or more vocal tic is present
Personality inventories – Ask clients to state whether each item in a long list of statements applies to them, and could ask about feelings, behaviors, or beliefs
Phallic Stage – Occurring from about age 3 to 5-6 years, the libido is focused on the genitals and children develop an attachment to the parent of the opposite sex and are jealous of the same sex parent
Pica – The act of eating items that are not food, on a regular or recurring basis
Pineal gland – Helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle
Pituitary gland – The “master gland” which regulates other endocrine glands; It influences blood pressure, thirst, contractions of the uterus during childbirth, milk production, sexual behavior and interest, body growth, the amount of water in the body’s cells, and other functions as well
Placebo – Or a sugar pill made to look exactly like the pill given to the experimental group
Plasticity – The ability for our brain to modify its neural connections, our brains have
Point prevalence – Indicates the proportion of a population that has the characteristic at a specific point in time
Polarized – When the neuron has a negative charge inside and a positive charge outside
Pons – The part of the brain that acts as a bridge connecting the cerebellum and medulla and helps to transfer messages between different parts of the brain and spinal cord
Posttraumatic stress disorder – More commonly known as PTSD, is identified by the development of physiological, psychological, and emotional symptoms following exposure to a traumatic even
Positive psychology – The position in psychology that holds a more positive conception of human potential and nature
Positive Punishment (PP) – If something bad or aversive is given or added, then the behavior is less likely to occur in the future
Positive Reinforcement (PR) – If something good is given or added, then the behavior is more likely to occur in the future
Preconscious – According to Freud, the level of personality that includes all of our sensations, thoughts, memories, and feelings
Presenting problem – The issue the person displays
Prevalence – The percentage of people in a population that has a mental disorder or can be viewed as the number of cases per some number of people
Prevention – When we identify the factors that cause specific mental health issues and implement interventions to stop them from happening, or at least minimize their deleterious effects
Prognosis – The anticipated course the mental disorder will take
Projection – When we attribute threatening desires or unacceptable motives to others
Projective tests – A psychological test which consists of simple ambiguous stimuli that can elicit an unlimited number of responses
Psychoanalysis – Psychoanalytic therapy used to understand the personality of a therapist’s patient and to expose repressed material
Psychological debriefing – A type of crisis intervention that requires individuals who have recently experienced a traumatic event to discuss or process their thoughts and feelings related to the traumatic event, typically within 72 hours of the event
Psychological model – includes learning, personality, stress, cognition, self-efficacy, and early life experiences and how they affect mental illness
Psychological or psychogenic perspective – States that emotional or psychological factors are the cause of mental disorders and represented a challenge to the biological perspective
Psychological tests – Used to assess the client’s personality, social skills, cognitive abilities, emotions, behavioral responses, or interests and can be administered either individually or to groups in paper or oral fashion
Psychopathology – The scientific study of psychological disorders
Public stigma – When members of a society endorse negative stereotypes of people with a mental disorder and discriminate against them
Punishment – Due to the consequence, a behavior/response is less likely to occur in the future
Q
R
Random assignment – When participants have an equal chance of being placed in the control or experimental group
Rape – Forced sexual intercourse or other sexual act committed without an individual’s consent
Rationalization – When we offer well thought out reasons for why we did what we did but in reality these are not the real reason
Reaction formation – When an impulse is repressed and then expressed by its opposite
Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) – A child with RAD presents as detached from others and like DSED, often experience impaired caregiving.
Reactivity – When the observed changes behavior due to realizing they are being observed
Reading learning disorder – This essentially relates to an individual having difficulty in reading, may that be in comprehending material, reading fluently and quickly, or reading words accurately
Receptor sites – Locations where neurotransmitters bind to
Regression – When we move from a mature behavior to one that is infantile in nature
Reinforcement – Due to the consequence, a behavior/response is more likely to occur in the future
Reinforcement schedule – The rule for determining when and how often we will reinforce a desired behavior
Relapse prevention training – Identifying potentially high-risk situations for relapse and then learning behavioral skills and cognitive interventions to prevent the occurrence of a relapse
Relative refractory period – After a short period of time, the neuron can fire again, but needs greater than normal levels of stimulation to do so
Reliable – When our assessment is consistent
Replication – Repeating a study to confirm its results
Repolarization – When the Na channels close and Potassium channels open; K has a positive charge and so the neuron becomes negative again on the inside and positive on the outside, or polarizes
Repression – When unacceptable ideas, wishes, desires, or memories are blocked from consciousness
Research design – Our plan of action of how we will go about testing the hypothesis
Resistance – According to psychoanalytic theory, is the point during free association that the patient cannot or will not proceed any further
Respondent conditioning (also called classical or Pavlovian conditioning) – Occurs when we link a previously neutral stimulus with a stimulus that is unlearned or inborn
Respondent Discrimination – When the CR is elicited by a single CS or a narrow range of CSs
Respondent Extinction – When the CS is no longer paired with the UCS
Respondent Generalization – When a number of similar CSs or a broad range of CSs elicit the same CR
Resting potential – When the neuron is waiting to fire
Reticular formation – The part of the brain responsible for alertness and attention
Reuptake – The process of the presynaptic neuron taking up excess neurotransmitters in the synaptic space for future use
Reversal or ABAB design – A study in which the control is followed by the treatment, and then a return to control and second administration of the treatment condition; builds replication in to the design
Rumination Disorder – The frequent act of regurgitating food with no medical explanation (e.g. gastro concerns, reflux) and in the absence of a body-image/weight-related reason (e.g., anorexia/bulimia)
S
Schema – A set of beliefs and expectations about a group of people, presumed to apply to all members of the group, and based on experience
Self-stigma – When people with mental illnesses internalize the negative stereotypes and prejudice, and in turn, discriminate against themselves
Scientific method – A systematic method for gathering knowledge about the world around us
Sedative-Hypnotic drugs – More commonly known as anxiolytic drugs, these drugs have a calming and relaxing effect on individuals
Selective Mutism – A disorder is characterized by an absence of speech in particular social situations in which a person is expected to speak
Self-monitoring – When the person does their own measuring and recording of the ABCs
Self-serving bias – When we attribute our success to our own efforts (dispositional) and our failures to outside causes (situational)
Sensitization – When our reactions are increased due to a strong stimulus
Separation Anxiety Disorder – A disorder that is characterized by excessive fear of separating from a caregiver. A child may worry about the caregiver becoming seriously ill, dying, or being permanently separated from them
Serotonin – Neurotransmitter which controls pain, sleep cycle, and digestion; leads to a stable mood and so low levels leads to depression
Single-subject experimental design – When we have to focus on one individual in a study
Social anxiety disorder – Occurs when an individual experiences anxiety related to social or performance situations, where there is the possibility that they will be evaluated negatively
Social cognition – The process of collecting and assessing information about others
Social desirability – When a participant answers questions dishonestly so that he/she is seen in a more favorable light
Social norms – The stated and unstated rules of society
Social Pragmatic Communication Disorder – Characterized by overall difficulty with understanding how social communication should occur (e.g., to and fro), flexible understand of places and contexts of conversation (e.g., we talk about personal things to friends and not to acquaintances, we talk quietly in library and loudly at a football game), and subtle social cues
Sociocultural Model – includes factors such as one’s gender, religious orientation, race, ethnicity, and culture that affect mental illness
Soma – The cell body
Somatic nervous system – Allows for voluntary movement by controlling the skeletal muscles and carries sensory information to the CNS
Specific phobia – Observed when an individual experiences anxiety related to a specific object or subject
Spontaneous recovery – When the CS elicits the CR after extinction has occurred
Standardization – When we use clearly laid out rules, norms, and/or procedures in the process of assessing clients
Statistical significance – An indication of how confident we are that our results are due to our manipulation or design and not chance
Stereotypic Movement Disorder (SMD) – A disorder in which an individual engages in repetitive movements and those movements have no clear functional purpose
Stereotypy – Stereotyped movement
Stigma – When negative stereotyping, labeling, rejection, and loss of status occur
Stimulus generalization – The tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses to other conditions
Stressors – Any event- either witnessed firsthand, experienced personally or experienced by a close family member- that increases physical or psychological demands on an individual
Sublimation – When we find a socially acceptable way to express a desire
Substance abuse – Occurs when an individual consumes the substance for an extended period of time, or has to ingest large amounts of the substance to get the same effect a substance provided previously
Substance Intoxication – A substance use disorder characterized by recent ingestion of substance, significant behavioral or psychological changes immediately following the ingestion of substance, physical and physiological symptoms develop after ingestion of substance, and changes in behavior not attributable to a medical condition or other psychological disorder
Substance Use Disorder – A substance use disorder diagnosed when the individual presents with at least two criteria to include: substance is consumed in larger amounts over time, desire or inability to reduce quantity of substance use, cravings for substance use, use of the substance in potentially hazardous situations, tolerance of substance use, and withdrawal, to name a few (11 total criteria)
Substance Withdrawal – A substance use disorder characterized by cessation or reduction in substance that has been previously used for a long or heavy period of time, physiological and/or psychological symptoms within a few hours after cessation/reduction, physiological and/or psychological symptoms cause significant distress or impairment in functioning, and symptoms not attributable to a medical condition or other psychological disorder
Substances – Any ingested materials that cause temporary cognitive, behavioral, and/or physiological symptoms within the individual
Superego – According to Freud, the part of personality which represents society’s expectations, moral standards, rules, and represents our conscience
Sympathetic nervous system – Involved when a person is intensely aroused; It provides the strength to fight back or to flee (fight-or-flight instinct)
Synapse – The point where the code passes from one neuron to another; Consists of three parts – the axon of the sending neuron; the space in between called the synaptic space, gap, or cleft; and the dendrite of the receiving neuron
Syndrome – Symptoms occurred regularly in clusters
Systematic desensitization – An exposure technique that utilizes relaxation strategies to help calm the individual as they are presented with the fearful object
T
Target behavior – Whatever behavior we want to change and it can be in excess or needing to be reduced, or in a deficit state and needing to be increased
Thalamus – The major sensory relay center for all senses but smell
Thanatos – Our death instinct which is either directed inward as in the case of suicide and masochism or outward via hatred and aggression
Thematic Apperception Test – A projective test which asks the individual to write a complete story about each of 20 cards shown to them and give details about what led up to the scene depicted, what the characters are thinking, what they are doing, and what the outcome will be
Theory – A systematic explanation of a phenomenon
Threshold of excitation – -55mV or the amount of depolarization that must occur for a neuron to fire; It rises from -70mV to -55mV
Thwarted belongingness – Not feeling connected to others or feeling isolated
Thyroid gland – The endocrine gland which regulates the body’s rate of metabolism and so how energetic people are.
Tics – Can be either motor movements (motor) or vocalizations (vocal)
Tolerance – The need to continually increase the amount of ingested substance
Tourette’s Disorder – When both motor and vocal tics are present
Transference – In psychoanalytic theory, this technique involves patients transfering to the therapist attitudes he/she held during childhood
Trauma – When a stressor is significant enough that they pose a threat, whether real or imagined, to the individual or loved one
Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) – An adaptation of CBT, that utilizes both CBT techniques, as well as trauma sensitive principles to address the trauma related symptoms
Treatment – Any procedure intended to modify abnormal behavior into normal behavior
Trephination – In which a stone instrument known as a trephine was used to remove part of the skull, creating an opening
Trial and error learning – Making a response repeatedly if it leads to success
Trichotillomania – Characterized by an individual recurrently pulling their hair our and results in hair loss
U
Unconscious – According to Freud, the level of personality not available to us
Uni-dimensional model – A single factor explanation for mental illness
V
Validity – When the test measures what it says it measures
Variable Interval schedule (VI) – Reinforcing at some changing amount of time
Variable Ratio schedule (VR) – Reinforcing some varying number of responses
W
Written expression learning disorder – This may refer to simply the ability to accurately spell words or punctuate and use correct grammar, or it may also include one’s ability or create written work that is well-organized and comprehendible
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